Magnetic Fluids :: GCSE Chemistry

1.1 PRELUDEThe phenomenon of ferromagnetism is associated only with the substantialness state of function like iron, nickel, cobalt and some rare earth metals and their eachoys. Thus, up to now, at that place is no intrinsic homogeneous fluid having ferro magnetic properties although, theories admit the opening of ferromagnetism in the liquid state, and suggest that there is no inherent origin why they should not exist 1-3,5. Ferromagnetism occurs when paramagnetic ions in a solid lock together in such a way that their spins all intimate (on the average) in the same direction . At a real temperature this locking breaks down and ferromagnetic reals become paramagnetic. This transition temperature is called the Curie point (TC), which is invariably well below the melting point of the corresponding material 1,8,12.1.2 MAGNETIC FLUIDSMagnetic fluids ( MF ) are stable colloidal suspensions of ultra exquisitely ferro- or ferri- magnetic particles ( D100Ao ), coated with a surfacta nt like oleic acid, in a suitable liquid carriers such as Isopar-M, kerosene, decalin, etc., 1,2. The idea of MF was depute forward independently and almost simultaneously by several investigators. The low prepared MF was developed by Stephen Papell of the National Aeronautics and set Administration (NASA) in the early 1960s. After that, Ronald E. Rosensweig and his colleagues succeeded in formulating MFs that were 10 quantify as strong magnetically as Papells original MF 1.The special feature of magnetic fluids is given by the fact, that they combine linguistic rule liquid behavior with superparamagnetic properties, as will be discussed later. The possibility of magnetic fluid control gave rise to the development of many technical applications in our everyday life 1-3.Mixtures are classified into three kinds colloidal suspensions, suspensions, and solutions, and unity of the principal features that differentiate one kind of mixture from another is the size of it of the parti cles 6. Colloidal suspensions (also called colloids) are mixtures that are intermediate between solutions and suspensions. Typically the rung of the particle is of the order 100Ao. Since this is much smaller than the size of a maven magnetic domain in bulk solids, which is about , the magnetization of the private particle is saturated, but the direction of the magnetic moment is subject to thermal agitation 1,2,5. The particles used are commonly Fe3O4, Fe, Co and Ni.MF is a two-phase system with three components, which combines magnetic properties, carried by the solid magnetic fine particles, with fluidity of the carrier liquid.

Profiling Foreign Students is Rational and Legitimate Essay -- Septemb

Profiling Foreign Students is Rational and Legitimate   Sixty years ago, the joined States placed Japanese-, German-, and Italian-Americans in internment camps. Our country has also excluded volume of heterogeneous nationalities simply because we didnt like their kind. The governments scrutiny of Middle Eastern students in solvent to September 11 has thus evoked acute suspicions and fears that the Hollywood scenario in The Siege will become a reality. Others are concerned that scour if internment is a remote possibility, the recent heightened attention toward a assort of foreign students amounts to racial profiling. These fears are perfectly reasonable just now, thankfully, unsupported by what has happened thus far.   As much as Americans today insist on treating flock as individuals, there are some regrettable tidy sum in which grouping has legitimate calculates. The Supreme Court has recognized the compulsion of grouping by subjecting inherently suspect classific ations like race to a standard of strict scrutiny, while letting classifications with a reasonable purpose pass with intermediate scrutiny.  Fundamentally, the Court asks whether there is a rational flat coat for a government policy that treats a particular group of people differently. In its recent treatment of foreign students, the government has demonstrated a rational basis for measures that group people to meet a insistence state interest while minimizing the violation to individuals dignity.    Without casting aspersions on the people and the conclusion of the region, we cannot deny that the Middle East is a hotbed of fanaticism. Thousands of militants have been indoctrinated by calls for the violent destruction of entire gr... ...ent has presumed no guilt for the students it has sought records on, and it has neither publicized their names nor allowed universities to notify them because doing so would unduly arouse uncalled-for fears of persecution.   Edu cating foreign students is an important instrument of American foreign policy. Foreign students characterization as dual ambassadors, fostering better understanding between the citizens of their countries of rip and those of the United States. They bring elements of their culture to America while taking elements of our culture home to their societies. However, we must remember that this enlightened policy is open to abuse. late(a) government actions with regard to foreign students amount not to racial profiling, but rather to plugging the holes in the system so that we may continue this expensive cultural and educational exchange program.  

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich Dehumanization Essay

The brisk unrivaled Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich follows the life of a captive in a Siberian labor plurality during the communist period. Although the novel only describes angiotensin converting enzyme day in the life of this captive, the author succeeds at fashioning the motifs that occur most likely every day clear to the reader. A major motif in the novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich scripted by Alexander Solzhenitsyn is dehumanization Ivan Denisovich Shukhov is striped of his humanity because he is localise similarly to the way an animal would be extended.He is given instruction manual every second of the day, and has no say in how to live his life. dehumanisation occurs when people view others as less than human, therefore not self-aggrandising them the moral respect they deserve as humans. In this particular Stalinist labor camping ground, in which the main character Ivan Denisovich Shukhov is imprisoned, the officers are instructed to attack the prisoners dignity, therefore they are taking away their humanity, get bying them like they would sell a cattle, not people. As soon as the novel begins, so does Shukhovs day.When he opens his eyes, he already knows how the day will proceed, because each(prenominal) days are the same. He must go for breakfast at the same time every other prisoner does. This shows that he doesnt switch a say in when to do things, even much(prenominal) a basic need that many take for granted. Yet he does not complain, this is due to the fact that food is valuable to him and he has restrict access to it. The prisoners are not only instructed when to eat, but they also deplete to compete for food, the same way a group of chickens would fight for round grain.This fact is clearly shown when the narrator describes the scene shortly before Shukhov receives his meal, the touch on shouted through the hatch, and people were shoving at him from the other side (86). This shows how the workers have to fi ght to their food, as if they were savages. The cooks treat the men like one would treat a dog throwing food among a large crowd, thus making the dogs fight for their food. This is inhumane and takes away the prisoners dignity.It is just one of the many meals that Shukhov will have during his stay in the labor camp that represent the motif of dehumanization, and not only that, also humiliation. As humiliate as it is, the prisoners are grateful for any type of meal they get, A area of thin cabbage soup, half burned, was as welcome to them as rain to parched earth. Theyd swallow it in one gulp. That bowl of soupit was dearer than freedom, dearer than life itself, past, present, and future (126). The prisoners minds are set the way an animals mind is, they only think about food, and it is their main crusade for living.They have stepped to the level of an animal and lost their humanity and any hold in achieving anything else in their life. Another way in which the prisoners in this novel were dehumanized was the fact that they could not own anything that the officers found too dangerous. However, the officers took proceeds of this and would not give the laborers any freedom. For example, Shukhov had to hide a loaf of prick in his mattress so he doesnt get punished in one of the daily searches, Stich, stich, stich, and the little tear in the mattress was ended, with the bread obscure under it (25).This proves that the prisoners feared the officers, and the consequences that would come with not following the directions. Another way that the prisoners identicalness was taken away from them was that they were assigned numbers for well-off identification, in an effort to dehumanize them. By numbering them they were once again treated like animals, a way that cows are labeled on a farm, and not like individual humans. To continue, officers in the camp play a big role in the dehumanization act of the prisoners. The officers are in charge and treat the workers without any respect.The guards use strained labor and cruelty to dehumanize the workers. This is shown when the narrator himself compares the workers to animals, the fellows bringing the mortar were wind like horses (124). The prisoners were not only compared to horses, but also mules, hawks, and wolves. The officers treated the workers as if they were animals, therefore, they did not see them as human beings. This is shows when the narrators says, He wouldnt treat us like human beings now let him burst himself yelling (118).The officers looked at the prisoners as less than humans. The officers were the ones that took away the prisoners identity and humanity In conclusion, a key motif in the novel, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich written by Alexander Solzhenitsyn is dehumanization. Prisoners in this novel are treated not as humans should be treated but as animals. They are gathered in crowds to be fed and counted. In this way the officers strip them of their identity and their humanity. Leaving derriere only humiliation and disrespect.

Famine, Affluence, and Morality Essay

By drowning, I mean those who argon distraint help people. A few of the counter- personal credit lines that Singer addresses argon One, that he endowment medication will be less likely to take responsibility be movement hole-and-corner(a) organizations are organizing relief funds. Giving privately allows the government to escape their responsibilities of render aid. Singer does non believe that this assumption is plausible. He states I do non, of course, want to dispute the contention that governments of affluent nations should be giving more times the amount of genuine, no-strings-attached aid that they are giving now.I agree, too, that giving privately is not enough, and that we ought to be campaigning toyively for entirely novel standards or both public and private contributions to shortfall relief. Indeed, I would commiserate with any(prenominal)one who thought that campaigning was more important than giving one- self, although I doubt whether pr to each oneing what one does not practice would be genuinely effective. Unfortunately, for many people the idea that its the governments responsibility is a reason for not giving which does not appear to stand for any political action either. Two, until there is an effective population control, relieving deficit will postpone starvation.If we relieve suffering that is happening in the now, the in store(predicate) may end p suffering instead. The best means of preventing famine is population control. However, there are organizations who work specifically with population control. Therefore, this counter-argument is not sufficient enough to allow us to stand in the background. The triplet counter-argument would be how much we should be giving proscribed-of-door. Should we be giving away(p) more that would cause suffering to ourselves? Earlier in Singers article, he suggests that if everybody in his situation could donate E5, then nobody would be obligated to give more.He does not suggest that we give until we each the level marginal utility- the level at which by giving more, would cause as much suffering to ourselves or our dependents. Singers belief of marginal utility relates to his argument by explaining and to a lower placestanding that there are some people who cannot afford to support relief funds. He just states if everyone in circumstances like mine. This means that not everybody will be in the same circumstance to provide funds for relief. Duty and charity, fit to Singer, should be redrawn or abolished. Doing good by giving cash away is not considered charitable by Singer, but it is doing ood. We should refrain from buying fit out for fashion if we withstand old clothes that are suitable to hold off us warm and give the money away instead. He says, We would not be sacrificing anything significant if we were to continue to wear our old clothes, and give the money to famine relief. By doing so, we would be preventing another person from starving. It follows from what I have said earlier that we ought to give money away, rather than spend it on clothes which we do not need to keep us warm. This act is not considered charitable to Singer either.Our society, however, sees hese act as charitable because it is a voluntary donation. Personally, I do not tout ensemble disagree with Singers views but, I do not all told agree with them either. Jan Narveson (2004) wrote in her article Is World mendicancy a honourable Problem for the Wealthy? That she does not bring forward we owe the poor anything special. good deal may benefit for charities, but we should not be looked at as not the responsibility of another countrys government to take care of a poor country. It is the same as I do not think the wealthy should have to pay more taxes than the poor.We all start from somewhere and some millionaires and billionaires had to start from the bottom as well. We all work arduous for the salaries we earn. On the other hand, I think that charities are used for a good cause that benefit others rather than ourselves. Singer definitely had some points that if we all give a little, the world may be a better place. Narveson also wrote in another article Wel utmoste and Wealth, Poverty and Justice in Todays World (2004), each of us could do immensely more than we do to the needy. That we do not is a serious clean-living failing. This is completely true and upports Singers views as well.However, her statement is far more accurate in what we could do, rather than what we should do. My view would fall under deontological ethics. Mosser (2010) states that deontological ethics focuses on the will of the person carrying out the act in question, his or her intention in carrying it out, and, particularly, the rule according to which the act is carried out. For me this means that there could be different outcomes for Singers argument and that every aspect should be looked at. It doesnt make his view rightfulness or wrong, but it doesnt make the iews that counter his right or wrong either.Peter Singers article Famine, Affluence, and Morality, was written to induce people that our decisions and actions can prevent other countries from suffering. He suggests that people should do what is morally right by contributing financially to aid those who are starving, rather than purchasing wants for those who can afford it. Singer argues his moorage, provides counter-arguments, and explains his concepts for aiding countries in need. My views are not against Singers position, but they are not for his position either. References Mosser, K. 2010).

Budget Request: Hiring New Officers in the Community Essay

1. embroil at least deuce (2) robust pleas for hiring saucily practice of law police force officers. The justification should anticipate the key questions that the chief executive and council ordain likely ask. a. If this take is the result of an affixd work load, how quickly did the workload augment? Could the amplificationd workload be cover by part- time employees or by slip employees from a nonher subject field? b. How long wear you known this need was growth? Was the manager previously briefed on the growing workload? c. If the pick up is not funded, what impact go forth it have on the department?On citizens? (Hint If your request is not funded this year, managers often look to see if a request is repeatedly put forward to gauge its urgency. ) The present patrol force implicate thirty uniformed officers, on that point is an immediate need to hire iii to five more officers. The m either another(prenominal) of the citizens in this city have discovered det estation in the downtown atomic number 18a is rising rapidly. With a existence of over 75,000 residents in the fellowship, I strongly encourage increase our police force to offset of crime rate in the community.For every police office there argon 2500 citizens at that ratio we are definitely under manned. The compute while eventful cannot be the determining factor. Our officers mustiness know that we support them as a department and want them to be apart of their families lives. Much of the data from my department show no increase of crime rate however we cannot substaine control of this amount of population without adding to the force. With legion(predicate) veterans returning home from the wars we should be able to get qualified applicants.When hiring these types of talents there leave be less m unmatchedy in the training of the person and more concentration on the duty of the officer saving the community more capital. This request entrust be justified as an increase in crime and workload has increased over the years, the crime and workload has risen moderately over the six year period we neer hired reinvigorated officers and now seems like a great time to contain the problem. The increased workload and crime increase will have to be covered by three full time employees and two part time employees.This need has been developing since the year of 2006 when the economy seemed to be going into an economic depression, when people began losing their jobs crime increased and the workload for the officers went up as well because they were handling situations they were not accustomed to such as counseling families and being mentors to children whose parents were working to help with the ever rising botch up and food prices. The manager was informed of the changes in the workload and bought it to my attention that something has to be done or we will lose business in the area due to crime and on other factors.If the request is not funded this will have a major impact on the department the popular will no longer believe we are here to value them just to satisfy a fiscal budget that is drawn up every year. People in the communities will past feel as though they will have to take the law into their own men causing turmoil at heart the communities. My second justification citizen appreciation and safety, hiring the new officers will show citizens that we put their public safety knowing that our budget will not be balanced.Analysis executed by the statistical department forecast and increase done by my team and the increase in the population is what prompts us to request for the hiring of new officers. Community policing is call for in individually community by officers hired through the bow this type of policing promotes structural strategies, which provides the officers with partnerships and problem-solving skills, that will deter crime and social disorder. The safeties of each citizen will the number one concern citizens sh ould feel safe walk home from school, the movies or even walking to their dogs.This justification of hiring new officers will just make people feel safer, when they see our patrol cars lotion their areas, and too when they see our officers in their local school protecting their kids from any type of violence or verbal assaults. This year we are perceive the biggest increase in retirees, our senior officers are retiring this is alike a factor in our need to hire new officers. The first remonstrance would be that after doing the analysis of 911 response calls and hands-on activities of the officer do we really need more fficers? The officers are very efficient and they stand out all of their goals that are placed before them currently. With crime rate at in the community at six year low, why do we need these officers? With the hiring of these new officers the demand for overtime stomach with the existing officers will decrease. Overtime cost the department a significant amount it in like manner puts a mental strain on the officers. Financing of the new officer packaging will occur from those decreases. Another objection proposed revenue for salaries where does it come from?We are going to approve a parcel tax that would leave behind the city millions of dollars to hire more police officers? Will there also be a program in place where the community participates in helping the officers with crime control? If this is put in to place then there will not be a need to higher(prenominal) new officers because this will cut down on cost. Not many citizens oppose hiring five new police officers because of the immediate benefit to team spirit of the city and police department. One objection is proper allocation of finances throughout the force.With the addition al officers being added on the force their will be additional arrests, court appointed lawyers assigned to the case, and over live jails. Each of the benefits lead to an increase of fines and revenue co llections by the judicial courts. prevention is the key when thinking of arrests and jail numbers with the increase in police officers there will be an increase in costs within the community and state trickling to the federal government as well. The cost of equipment heir and repair could play a role in the investment of new officers.If there is an increase in officers within the community what guarantees that the rate of crime in the downtown area will decrease? There are other areas within the state that has an increase in crime would these officers be beneficial for all areas or just the intended areas? Will the citizens of the city have to worry about a tax hike to pay for these officers? These are very relevant questions that should be answered only to protect the citizens within the community. In conclusion the budget request definitely points towards the hiring of the officers, more than one hundred percent of the money goes to creating jobs.Job creation is very important t o the community because it provides family stability. There is funding in the federal government that includes grants if you are hiring police officers and the COPS Hiring Program (CHP) this program has awarded 111 million dollars in grant money to help with the hiring of police officers. (http//www. cops. usdoj. gov/Default. asp? Item=2367). With the increase of crime increasing within the community there is much need for the new officers to be hired our number one goal is to protect the people of the community and state.Police officers are here to suppress the fear of crime and also to decrease the rate of crime. There are many factors that are covered by the federal government when funding each state with copious funding for police enforcement. The federal government uses these funds to initiate activities that trash violence in local communities, including $25 million for the Community- Based military force Prevention Initiatives that aim to reduce gun and other violence amon g jejuneness gangs in cities and towns across the country.

Fin 516 Quiz 1

1. Question (TCO C) Blease Inc. has a capital budget of $625,000, and it wants to maintain a target capital structure of 60 shargondebt and 40 per centum integrity. The company forecasts a net income of $475,000. If it fol economic crisiss the residual dividend policy, what is its forecasted dividend payout ratio? (a) 40. 61% (b) 42. 75% (c) 45. 00% (d) 47. 37% (e) 49. 74% Student dissolving agent (d) 47. 37 righteousness require (Residual income) = $625,000*40% = $250,000 Dividend paid = $475,000 $250,000 = $225,000 Dividend payout ratio = 225000/475000 = 47. 37% instructor Explanation Answer is dText pp. 570-572 Residual Dividends, Chapter 14 Capital budget $625,000 Equity ratio 40% Net income (NI) $475,000 Dividends paid = NI (Equity ratio)(Capital budget) $225,000 Dividend payout ratio = Dividends paid/NI 47. 37% Points authentic 10 of 10 Comments 2. Question (TCO F) The following data applies to Saunders Corporations redeemable tie ups Maturity 10 Stock charge $30. 00 Par value $1,000. 00 passage price $35. 00 Annual coupon 5. 00% Straight-debt yield 8. 00% What is the stings conversion value? (a) $698. 15 (b) $734. 89 (c) $773. 57 (d) $814. 29 e) $857. 14 Student Answer (e) $857. 14 Conversion ratio = Par value / Conversion Price= 28. 5714 = megabyte/35 Current sh be price= $30. 00 Therefore, conversion value of the bond= $857. 14 =28. 5714&21530 teacher Explanation Answer is e Chapter 19 pp. 770-774 Conversion value = Conversion ratio x Market price of stock = $857. 14 Points Received 10 of 10 Comments 3. Question (TCO B) SA Your truehearted has debt worth $350,000, with a yield of 12. 5 percent, and equity worth $700,000. It is ripening at aseven percent valuate, and faces a 40 percent revenue enhancement rate.A equivalent solid with no debt has a cost equity of 17 percent. under(a) the MM extension with growth, what is its cost of equity? (a) 19. 25% (b) 21. 75% (c) 18. 0% (d) 17. 5% (e) 18. 4 % Student Answer Instructor Explanation A is correct. Instructor Explanation M & M Extension with Growth sectionalization 26. 4 (pp. 1011-1015) rsL = rsU + (rsU rd)(D/S) 19. 25% = 17% + (17%-12. 5%)(350,000/700,000) Points Received 10 of 20 Comments this is you emailed solution 4. (TCO B) SA Your steadfast has debt worth $350,000, with a yield of 12. 5 percent, and equity worth $700,000.It is growing at a seven percent rate, and faces a 40 percent tax rate. A similar firm with no debt has a cost equity of 17 percent. Under the MM extension with growth, what is its cost of equity? My answer is (d) 17. 5% rsL = rsU + (rsU rd)(D/S) 17. 5% = 15% + (15%-10%)(200,000/400,000 I am not sure where you got the 15% number for the rsU or the 200,000 for D or the 400,000 for S the calculations and formula are correct but you used all incorrect inputs so I will give you 1/2 credit A is correct. Instructor Explanation M & M Extension with Growth Section 26. (pp. 1011-1015) rsL = rsU + (rsU rd)(D/S) 19. 25% = 17% + (17%-12. 5%)(350,000/700,000) 4. Question (TCO B) degraded L has debt with a market value of $200,000 and a yield of nine percent. The firms equity has a market value of $300,000, its earnings are growing at afive percentrate, and its tax rate is 40 percent. A similar firm with no debt has a cost of equity of 12 percent. Under the MM extension with growth, what would Firm Ls total value be if it had no debt? (a) $358,421 (b) $377,286 (c) $397,143 (d) $417,000 (e) $437,850 Student Answer (c) $397,143 VTotal = VU + VTS, so VU = VTotal VTS = D + S VTS. Value tax shelter = VTS = rdTD/(rsU g) = 0. 09(0. 40)($200,000)/(0. 12 0. 05) = $102,857 VU = $300,000 + $200,000 $102,857 = $397,143 Instructor Explanation Answer is c Chapter 26, pp. 1011-1015 Debt $200,000 Equity $300,000 rd 9% rsU 12% T 40% g 5% Firm L has a total value of $200,000 + $300,000 = $500,000. A similar firm with no debt should have a smaller valu(e) Here is the calculation VTotal = VU + VTS, so VU = VTotal VTS = D + S VTS. Value tax shelter = VTS = rdTD/(rsU g) = 0. 9(0. 40)($200,000)/(0. 12 0. 05) = $102,857 VU = $300,000 + $200,000 $102,857 = $397,143 Points Received 20 of 20 Comments 5. Question (TCO A) Which of the following statements is CORRECT? (a) An options value is resolved by its exercise value, which is the market price of the stock less its liaison price. Thus, an option cant sell for more than its exercise value. (b) As the stocks price rises, the metre value portion of an option on a stock increases because the difference between the price of the stock and the fixed overcome price increases. c) Issuing options provides companies with a low cost method of aerodynamic lift capital. (d) The market value of an option depends in part on the options time to maturity and also on the variability of the underlying stocks price. (e) The potential detriment on an option decreases as the option sells at high and h igher prices because the profit margin gets bigger. Student Answer (c) Issuing options provides companies with a low cost method of raising capital. Instructor Explanation Answer is d Chapter 8, pp. 306-310 Points Received 0 of 20 Comments Companies do not issue Options they are a trading vehicle of the exchanges no capital from options go to the firm 6. Question (TCO F) Suppose the December CBOT Treasury bond futures let has a quoted price of 80-07. What is the implied annual interest rate inherent in the futures contract? Assume this contract is based on a 20 course of instruction Treasury bond with semi-annual interest payments. The face value of the bond is $1000, and the semi-annual coupon payments are $30. The annual coupon rate on the bonds is $60 per bond (or 6%).The futures contract has 100 bonds. (a) 6. 86% (b) 7. 22% (c) 7. 60% (d) 8. 00% (e) 8. 40% Student Answer (d) 8% Quote 8007 0. 80 0. 07 N 40 PV = (0. 80+0. 07/32) ? $1,000 = -$802. 1875 FV = $1,000 PMT = $30 I/YR = 4. 00% Annual rate I/YR ? 2 = 8. 00% Instructor Explanation Answer is d Chapter 23, pp. 917-923 Answer Detail Quote 80-07 0. 80 0. 07 N 40 PV = (0. 80+0. 07/32) ? $1,000 = -$802. 1875 FV = $1,000 PMT = $30 I/YR = 4. 00% Annual rate I/YR ? 2 = 8. 00% Points Received 20 of 20 Comments

How Wwii Effected the Indian Independence Movement

Rebecca Martinez 18 November 2012 Professor Sutherland ANTH 4002 World contend IIs Impact on the Indian Independence Movement The victor of the Indian Independence movement is, by some scholars, largely attri howevered to efforts of Mahatma Gandhi. As stated by BBC, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian chauvinistic movement against British mold, and is widely considered the father of his country (India. wikia. com). However, this revolutionary movement, a dream that had been maturation since the mid nineteenth century, was the infusion of a wide spectrum of Indian policy-making organizations, philosophies, and rebellions.For ex angstromerele, the til nowts and aftermath of the Second World War posed an frugal crisis and policy-making confrontation that transformed nationalism and colonialism for many colonies, including India. Even less impute is given to the non-homogeneous international events that shaped the movement, as well as those involved. Regardless of the divisio ns in Indian nationalist efforts, both in stick out and against violence, they all contained one common refinement license from Britain.Were historians correct in their proposition that Indias license was largely attributed to Gandhis peaceful anti-war efforts, or were Gandhis strategies ultimately ineffective? If proven effective, should Indias rapid bring forward in independence during World War II be seen as affected most by Gandhi, or were bigger actors involved? I believe that the generator of Indias successes in their 100-year struggle for independence should non be correlated with one man.Rather, by paying close forethought to key events, powerful semipolitical players, critical economical changes, and motivating political factors from around the globe during this period, historians will gain a better rationality of how Indias independence movement was rapidly accelerated, and ultimately successful, during the period contact World War II. When war initially broke out in September of 1939, Britains grip on India was as fierce and opinionated as ever (Bose and Jalal, 130).Although recounting leadership in India implored Great Britain to situate their war aim before declaring Indias support, viceroy Linlithgow avowed the British Indian Empire a belligerent against the axis powers without consulting prominent Indian leaders (Bose and Jalal, 130). Once it became clear that the British were unconcerned with Indian nationalist aspirations, the entire Congress leadership resigned from the local government councils in own. However, this protest was non simply an opposition to Britains decision.Many Indian nationalists believed that Britains competitiveness for democracy and freedom in the Second World War contradicted their rule over a multitude of colonies (wiki. com). Mahatma Gandhi, for example, termed Britains war to save democracy as hypocrisy since it was denying democratic rights and individual liberties to Indians (wiki. com). Despite the atrocities faced by Indians to a lower place British rule, many Indians supported the British war effort and fought with the assort Forces.In hopes that the British would go steady India after the Second World War, the Indian study Congress cooperated with the British war efforts, making the British Indian multitude was one of the largest volunteer potencys during the war (India. wikia. com). However, when it became clear the Britain had no intention of relenting their halt India after the war, Gandhi called for a determined but passive resistance to further a peaceful negotiation with the British government.Ultimately, Gandhi and the Congress Party proposed a Quit India Movement, which declared that if the British did non accede to the demands for Indian independence, a massive cultured Disobedience would be launched (Bose and Jalal, 133). However, once Britain arrested the top Congress Party leaders, the Quit India Movement fizzed out entirely before it even had a ch ance to gather steam.That being tell, although Mahatma Gandhis initial civilised disobedience movements were driving forces that ultimately shaped the cultural, religious, and political unity of a Indian diverse nation, they did non own a significant concussion on Indian independence following the Second World War. Although storeys spotlight for Indian nationalist ideas during this eon is set on Gandhi, the fight for freedom during World War II saw the revolt of two independence movements. Some leaders of the revolutionary Indian independence movement collaborated with the Axis powers to overthrow the British Raj.Although largely ignored by historians, the Azad Hind movement, in collaboration with Japanese forces, successfull-of-the-moony formd the Indian discipline Army in 1942. Indian military alliances with Axis nations also include the Legion Freies Indien in Nazi Germany and the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan in Fascist Italy (wiki. com). Although Adolf Hitler saw Indian s as racially inferior and had no interest in Indias future, he believed that if India gained its independence it could become a valuable ally of the Axis powers and process it gain dominance in the Indian Ocean area (Kumar).As a result, Germany and Japan actively provided support to Indian independence movement leaders. The Indian Nation Army, led by Subhash Chandra Bose, was based on the principle that An oppositenesss enemy is a friend (India. wikia. com). Bose also formed what came to be known as the Azad Hind Government, with Indian prisoners of war and Indian expatriates in South-East Asia, with the table service of the Japanese (Bose and Jalal, 134). Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to overtake the Raj (Bose and Jalal, 134).However, due to poor arms and supplies from the Japanese and lack of support and training, the Indian content Army and entire Azad Hind ultimately failed. Alt hough defeated, Boses opening gave hope to the Indian public and turned the support and allegiance of the essential soldiers of the British Indian Forces from the crown to the Indian National Army soldiers. In doing so, the British Army, whose ultimate goal was to replace the loyalty of Indian soldiers to the crown, was replaced by the Indian National Army (Bose and Jalal, 134).Bose also succeeded in developing a larger participation and unity in the Indian community, one that cover religious and gender boundaries, than Mahatma Gandhis Quit India movement. In his book The Indian Struggle, Bose described his first meeting with Gandhi in 1921, there was a vile lack of clarity in the plan which the Mahatma had formulated and that he himself had no clear idea of the successive stages of the campaign which would bring India to her cherished goal of freedom (Kumar).However, although Boses efforts did aid Indias independence movement, it did not create an impact large enough for histor ians to declare its actions as the primary(prenominal) source of Indias accelerated independence. The most effective factor in Indian independence during World War II, therefore, could not have been the result of Indian nationalist efforts. It was British prime minister Clement Atlee who, when granting independence to India, said that Gandhis non-violence movement had next to zero effect on the British.In corroboration, primary(prenominal) Justice P. B. Chakrabarty of the Kolkata High Court, disclosed the following in a garner addressed to the publisher of Ramesh Chandra Majumdars book A History of Bengal, You have fulfilled a noble task by persuading Dr. Majumdar to write this storey of Bengal and publishing it In the preface of the book Dr. Majumdar has written that he could not accept the thesis that Indian independence was brought about solely, or preponderantly by the non-violent civil disobedience movement of Gandhi.When I was the acting Governor, master copy Atlee, who had given us independence by withdrawing the British rule from India, fatigued two days in the Governors palace at Calcutta during his tour of India. At that time I had a prolonged treatment with him regarding the real factors that had led the British to quit India. My direct question to him was that since Gandhis Quit India movement had tapered off quite some time ago and in 1947 no such naked compelling function had arisen that would necessitate a hasty British departure, why did they have to leave?In his reply Atlee cited several reasons, the principal among them being the erosion of loyalty to the British Crown among the Indian legions and navy personnel as a result of the military activities of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. Toward the end of our discussion I asked Atlee what was the point of Gandhis influence upon the British decision to quit India. Hearing this question, Atlees lips became twisted in a sarcastic smile as he belatedly chewed out the word, m-i-n-i-m-a-l ( Kumar).In reality, the political confrontations and negotiations amidst Indian nationalists and the British were immensely influenced by an atmosphere of deepening economic crisis. In the aftermath of World War II, Britains economy was destroyed to such an extent that they were no daylong able to financially maintain their military forces, making Great Britain incompetent of containing the incessant freedom movements in their colonies. Therefore, due to its collapsed economy, Great Britain would have go away India some(prenominal) later than they did after World War II, regardless of Gandhi, Bose, or any nationalist leader.The most influential character in Indias independence, therefore, would evidently be Adolf Hitler. Despite his selfish reasons for war, Hitler inadvertently created the perfect economic atmosphere needed for the Indian Independence Movement to take flight. Had Hitler not begun World War II, Indias independence, with only nationalist determination as a driving force, would most probably have taken much longer than it did. In the aftermath of World War II, India had increased its political, economic and military influence, which paved the way for its independence from Great Britain in 1947.Although the main factor in Britains retreat in India was its economic turmoil, India would not have been able to create or sustain a red-blooded economy, government, or military without the help of key nationalist leaders. For example, previous tensions between Indian castes were eased by Gandhi, who launched the Haijan movement, a campaign to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he named Harijans, the children of God. Gandhi also influenced Indias b wrongoming political ideology. According to Jim Yardley, Gandhi is given full credit for Indias political identity as a tolerant, blase democracy. Likewise, Indian military precedent was also set by Bose in his creation of the Indian National Army. Bose also succeeded in uniting various religious e ntities in India. For example, when he first three of Boses officers to be tried were a Hindu, a Muslim, and a Sikh, Indians of all three religions became unify against the British in a national movement against the Indian National Army officers trial (india. wikia. com). Nationalist efforts, specifically Mahatma Gandhi, may have not been the leading force in Indias independence in 1947, but it did make independence easier. British historians P.J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins described the hopeless situation of the British in India as follows, By the end of war, there was a loss of purpose at the very center of the imperial system. The gentlemanly administrators who managed the Raj no longer had the heart to devise new moves against increasing odds, not to the lowest degree because after 1939 the majority of the Indian Civil Service were themselves Indian. In 1945 the new Viceroy, Wavell, commented on the weakness and weariness of the importance of the instrument still our administratio n in the shape of the British element in the Indian Civil Service.The town had been lost to opponents of the Raj the countryside had slipped beyond control. Widespread discontent in the army was followed in 1946 by a mutiny in the navy. It was then Wavell, the underprivileged messenger, reported to London that India had become ungovernable which finally led to the independence of India (Kumar). Furthermore, although the Indian Independence Movement was greatly hastened by Britains economic crisis posed during the aftermath of World War II, Indias identity would not be the same without the influential works of Indian nationalists. Works CitedBose, Sugata & Jalal, Ayesha. 2011, Modern South Asia History, Culture Political Economy, Third Edition. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, London and tonic York. http//india. wikia. com/wiki/Indian_Independence_Movement http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II Kumar, Susmit. 2012. Hitler, NOT Gandhi, Should Be Given Credit for t he Independence of India in 1947, Online forthcoming at http//www. susmitkumar. net/index. php? option=com_content&view=article&id=100&Itemid=86 Yardley, Jim. 2010, Obama Invokes Gandhi, Whose Ideal Eludes India. New York Times. 6, Nov.

Comparison between the South Asia and East Asia during WW1 Essay

In the twentieth century, WWI was a policy-making tornado of change, sweeping over the entire world, augmenting everything in its path. Although the associate and Axis powers were stirred the most by WWI, East Asia and South Asia were excessively transformed as well, through considerable social and political reform.In East Asia, china was the country outside of the Allied and Axis powers affected the most in WWI, through the creation of the Chinese Communist Party. afterwards WWI was over, the Treaty of Versailles transferred all German holdings in East Asia, including those in China, to Japan. To China, this was an fearful offense. Although China certainly didnt enjoy Germany owning part of their land, to have their cudgel enemy, Japan, owning it would be positively loathsome. A demonstration broke out in Beijing in protest over Versailles. After being overcome by both Japan and the West, China had enough humiliation and demanded social reform. It was then that Mao Zedong came forth and established the Chinese Communist Party. Although the nationals would extort the Communists efforts to overthrow the government, the Communist Party would eventually concede and take control, ever-changing China forever, because of the outcomes of WWI.In South Asia, India was affected by WWI through the heightened restrain of the Indian Nationalist movement. When England disemboweld their colony India to support the war effort, the Indians complied, and the Nationalist movement remained dormant during the war. After WWI was over, most of the world saw atomic number 63 as a time bomb of conflict, and this combined with the oppressive efforts to force Indian soldiers into the war cause the Indian Nationalist movement to return full force. Intellectuals like Gandhi appeared with ideas as to what a post colonial India would go out like, and almost everyone in India, Muslims and Hindus alike, could agree they wanted England out. Soon, England complied with Indias cri es for independency and apparently pulled out of South Asia. After discordant internal conflicts, India finally stabilized, with its independence intact, because of the outcomes of WWI.WWI changed the world forever and left many problems unsolved that would return once again more forceful than before. In China and India, WWI provoked social and political reform, but the two outcomes were very different. India gained its independence and set up a Western-style democracy, whereas China would eventually be ravished by the tormenting policies and killing-spree of Mao Zedong. Both India and China were directly affected by the outcomes of WWI.

Compiler Design Phases

Lexical Analysis * Stream of characters in the source broadcast is grouped into meaningful sequences called lexemes. Tokens are produced for each lexeme. A token is an diddle emblem generated during lexical analysis. * Generally, a token has an attribute value habituated to it. It denotes the position of the variable in a symbol table. A symbol table is a table which stores information about an identifier and is referred at diverse stages of compilation. Syntax Analysis * The syntax analyser checks each line of the encrypt and spots every tiny mistake that the programmemer has committed firearm typing the code. The compiling program follows a detailed procedure using the tokens creates by the lexical analyzer and creates a tree-like structure called the syntax tree. * The syntax analyzer checks whether the order of tokens conform to the rules of the programming language. Unmatched parenthesis, missing semicolons are near of the errors detected in this phase. * If there are no errors in the code, the syntax analyser successfully constructs a syntax tree which is later utilize by the semantic analyser. Semantic Analysis * Semantic by exposition is concerned with meanings.A semantic analyser is mainly concerned with what the program promoter and how it executes. * Type checking is an important aspect of semantic analysis where each hustler should be compatible with its operands. Intermediate ordinance Generation * A compiler may construct fair representations while converting a source program to a stain program. * The representation should be easy to convert into a target language. It is then passed onto the second phase of compiler design the synthesis phase. This phase involves the actual construction of target program and includes code optimisation and code generation.Code Optimization * As the name suggests, this phase aims at optimising the target code. * The code can be optimised in terms of time interpreted to execute, length of the code, me mory utilised or any other criteria. Code Generation * Target code is generated at this phase using the intermediate representation of the source program. * The machine instructions perform the same tasks as the intermediate code. Registers are allocated to variables in the program. * This has to be done carefully so as to avoid any clashes or repeated assignments. Various algorithms book been formulated to generate the most efficient machine code.

Rhetorical Devices

Have you ever written an rise and felt as though it wasnt good enough, not up to the teachers standards? or maybe there was to a greater extent you could have added to make it better.. to make an establish more effective what you need be rhetorical devices. Rhetorical devices are techniques that are used to convey and persuade the ratifier or meeter to consider a topic from another perspective. using rhetorical devices is a style of speaking or writing that trys to create a concomitant effect or bring out a particular resolution from a reader, some effective rhetorical devices are personification, alliteration, connotation andIn the undertake An Ode to the User-Friendly Pencil the author Bonnie Laing uses personification. She uses this rhetorical device when she calls the pencil an old friend and the computer the superior partner in a destructive relationship. By calling the pencil a friend she is say that a pencil will always be there alike(p) a loyal friend, where a comp uter will change with the evolution technology.She also uses puns Ive never had to commission a pencil, inter-face with it or program it. When she says, to boot a pencil, she means rebooting a computer as well as kicking it out. Alliteration is the repetition of the leading consonant sound in each word throughout a sentence or a phrase. In the Case for marriage by Linda Waite and Maggie Gallagher the authors use alliteration by saying the mass move of married mothers and they also say arrangement of performance. Alliteration is also used in Forget Prince Charming by June Callwood, she says first fiery intensity by using alliteration, the reader becomes more drawn to the topic because the author uses intriguing words. Connotation is the tone or emotional association that a word has.It can be interdict or compulsory, but is usually something seen by the population in general. For example, keep down and scrawny both mean that a person is thin. Slim, though, has a positive connot ation, it makes you speak up of an attractive person, while scrawny has a negative connotation, it makes you think of a malnourished or unhealthy person. Linda Waite and Maggie Gallagher in The Case for sexual union use connotation when saying orgy instead of saying a lot of there are different meanings for the word orgy and the reader may get the wrong idea. Connotation is also used in Forget Prince Charming, the author June Callwood says dope which also has other meanings but she is in reality referring to an uneducated person.

Examine the opening five minutes of ‘High Noon’, ‘Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid’, and ‘Unforgiven’

Examine the opening vanadium proceeding of last Noon, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance chela, and Unforgiven. contr provided overt what each of the directors seek to achieve in these sequences and how they locate their adopt deep down the genre. The terzetto take aims High Noon, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, and Unforgiven be all classic films that be hardened in the western genre. Principally these Westerns are set between the issue 1860 to 1900 and often located to the west of the Missouri and the Mississippi.The production of these three films span through a period of 40 years from 1952 to 1992 display a change and progression in the style of filming. From examining the opening five legal proceeding of each of the three films and with great reference to the key concepts I shall be able to establish what nonions build a Western and psychoanalyze how effectively they are used within each of the three films. High Noon directed by Fred Zinnemann was produced in 1952 and tells the story of Miller, a shaft villain who was sentenced in the town of Hadleyville to a lifetime imprisonment in Texas.Much to the towns distress Miller is released and back with a vengeance and together with a group of other villains they return to Hadleyville to seek revenge on the towns sheriff. This is a story about the final triumph of good over evil yet also touches upon other subjects like testing friendships and the mug up of women in power. This was the first film to use real time, by 1957 it was be parodied. High Noon begins with a non-diagetic soundtrack, Dont forsake me, oh my darling, which tells the story that is to follow.The film opens with a wide prospect of the great grassy plains with a lone rider in the distance, showing great iconography of a typical Western scene. Its report clues are precise quick in the first five minutes where the essentially liberal characters are here shown with the stereotypical look of being nearly shaven and wearing a port ragged clothes and a Stetson hat. This is come on backed up when they ride into the town, where people shocked and scared by their appearance stop immediately what they are doing and some even officiate to hide.One Spanish woman crosses herself when she sees them showing their naughtiness reputation and is open-and-shut here, that they are not often at that town and it is not a welcomed sight. There is a great contrast here between the good and the bad, primarily between Will Kane and Miller. In almost everyway they are opposite relating to Claud Levi-Strauss caprice on binary oppositions. The connotation of colour is very noticeable here, where the bad make funs are all wearing dark colours and ride on black horses in contrast to Will Kane who is about to wed Amy who is wearing white which reflects their innocence.This film uses conventions effectively to locate itself in the Western genre. It is located in a small town with one high route that is lined with t all wooden buildings. It also includes the familiar saloon and sheriffs office. These all link together to provide a representation of the stereotypical image of a western town. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid directed by George Roy mound (1969) is based on a true story that follows the lives of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid who are famous for great money box and train robberies.After many successful takes they encounter resistance and in a bid for license flee the demesne. This film takes the idea away from the evil cowboy and by the end of the film you feel less anger for them as in most Westerns but like them and feel a sense of wo and pity for them. This film opens with a short film reel shot in sepia. It tells of one of their many great train robberies as the mussiness in the wall gang. The sepia is a good reflection of the period of which this film is located, it also highlights and emphasises iconography of Westerns straight away.It then cuts out of sepia to t he nigh scene in which Butch is examining the security of the towns bank in facility for the robbery. There is a lot of exposure to the heavy bars and strong locks, obviously new, and unforeseen, Butch asks the bank teller What happened to the grey-headed bank, it was beautiful, the bank teller replies, People kept robbing it Like High Noon the way Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid are dressed reflects their personality and means that they keep be more easily recognised. As well the bad guy is well re straightawayned and scares a lot of people.Here, the Sundance Kid is well k straightwayn for his precise firing aim, shown in the scene where the Sundance Kid is playing tease and his opponent accuses him of cheating not knowing who he is, I didnt know you were the Sundance Kid when I accused you of cheating If I draw on you, youll kill me. He then asks him how good of a shooter he actually is, the Sundance Kid then demonstrates this and shows to the audience his character wher eas Butch Cassidy appears to be a lot more rational and the brains behind the operations. The Sundance Kid is very sombre and does not show much facial expression.Male feel is very dominant in this film, especially among the Sundance Kid, where his reputation is very historic and must be maintained to uphold the bad guy image. Unforgiven is the most tardily produced film of the three, made in 1992 and directed by Clint Eastwood who also stars and won 4 Oscars. It follows the story of William Munny, a notorious killer who is offered the chance to constitute a large sum of money by reverting to his old ways and killing two cowboys. The story line develops to show a more in depth side of the stereotypical villain of the West and the corruptness of people who are supposed to be on the good side.This film demonstrates 3 themes common to the Western genre Love, honour, and loyalty. The opening shot of the film has a simple scene of William Munny tending to his married womans grave in a silhouette cast by a glowing sunset. This is further explained by the use of a short paragraph that tells of Munnys past. The first few minutes shows how William Munny has become much more of a settled family man since his wife died and so his gangster days are long gone and now owns and runs a ranch with his two children, whom can further accentuate his now much more innocent personality.Due to his presence as a family man we do not initially see him as a villain, and due to the different nature of the story, whereby Munny is asked to kill the villains who cut up the novel girls face, which is well deserved, it makes the audience portray Munny more as a hero, who was only looking out for the best interests of his family. This first scene of tranquillity is contrasted by a stormy second scene as it makes the change from the country to a small Western town, and gives a narrative clue that something that could lift the equilibrium is about to take place.There is a shot emphasising the mansion saying billiards upstairs and then we see women being paid for sex. belly laugh then breaks the silence and the pace is speeded up using fast modify which portrays the commotion thats taking place. This is stopped abruptly with the pointing of a gun. As in many Western films women are used to demonstrate the issue of phallic power and pride at this time in history. Within Unforgiven olive-sized Bill, the town sheriff, talks to the head prostitute with little respect and does not listen to her opinion.Within the three films I have examined all three directors use similar iconography to portray the familiar Western scene and the villains constantly wearing dark clothes, with roughly cut hair and stubble around the mouth. The hero of a Western will always contrast the bad guy. The main themes that are covered are male pride, loyalty and honour. Women are used repeatedly to show male power in party and are used as mere objects. High Noon is a base that most Western f ilms use and its ideas are often revised. binder together narrative theories, iconography and typical themes makes these film fit into the Western genre.

Marketing Excellence: BMW Essay

? 1. What are the pros and cons to BMWs selective target selling? What has the steady done well over the years and where could it improve? When I expect someone riding in a BMW, I know that they essential be making good money. The stereotype for people who drive BMWs is that they are rich, and these are the people that the people over at BMW target. The pros to targeting the higher(prenominal) income cosmos is that they will be targeting people who are more apt(predicate) to purchase their product.Since BMW is known as a luxury car, people who hasten lower incomes are less likely to purchase from them. The cons to the selective marketing are that by not advertising to lower income people, they have cipher to be propel for. Someone could think a BMW ad, and be motivated to one day own one. Since the market is specifically the wealthier incomes, the lower income population may not be as aware of BMW. I see commercials for Mercedes all of the time now, and I know that I cant a fford one yet.As soon as Im able in addition, I plan on making it a precession to purchase a Mercedes. The firm has done a great personal credit line of improving its vehicles over the years. They have added so many electronic features to its cars to encumbrance up to date with technology. BMW also has come out with high-performance SUVs for people with larger families and who are more active. To improve, I would suggest that they peradventure create a model for the lower income population. Considering the majority of the population is middle class or lower, there is a whole untapped market for BMW to reach. 2.BMWs sales slipped during the worldwide recession in 2008 and 2009. Is its segmentation strategy too selective? Why or why not? I would severalise that their strategy is not too selective. During the recession, everybody struggled. So to blame BMW for their strategy that had make them so successful in the first place would not be fair. I believe that their strategy couldv e actually helped them during that time. Since BMW is so selective, they are but targeting people that have money anyways. So money that they spend on advertising wasnt necessarily being wasted.

The Catcher in the Rye and The Outsider novels hold

The Catcher In the Rye are two among the most pregnant novels of the twentieth century. The modern worlds general moral change and the individuals alienation from the erupticipation serve as the main, basic topic for both novels which is still pertinent to any cardinal premiere century endorser. Since many people repulse wind themselves in the same position of smelling wish an outsider from rules of order In their own worlds, I intend to outline how It still finds relevance today. twain characters, Meursault and Holden Caulfield share the same common sense that they are lienated from the worlds in which they live in which is important to a twenty first century reader as many people have problems assimilating themselves into friendship. Like Holden, teens today as well resist conforming to societys norms as is also highlighted in The Stranger with the whizz Meursault. Salinger chooses to narrate his novel so that the novel that depicts his protagonist, Holdens, trans ition from adolescence to adulthood.In contrast, Camus writes his novel In order to record the events leading up to, and the last days before, the execution of his main character, Meursault. Through the employment of settings, characterisation and endings, both authors imply that societys embrace on the individual to fit in plays a major part in both of these climaxes, this has grand importance to any twenty first century reader as the topic Is still challenged in todays society. Both characters Meursault and Holden Caulfield suggest that society pressures individuals to fit in and conform to.Holden is a teen struggling with the fact that everyone has to grow up, which to him means that you have to be play along phony or corrupt. Holden distances himself from the adult world and so to stay a child he gets imself expelled from schools. While on the early(a) hand Meursault does things for no real reason. He is completely aloof, unattached and almost an un delirious person. He doe s not hypothesize much about events or their bits, nor does he express much feeling In relationships or during emotional times.Both of these characters express their detachment from society which is relevant for many people in the twenty first centurys society as many people find difficulty finding their place in spite of appearance civilization. Holdens communional tone and choice of lecture Illustrates his rebellion from adult ociety as a stereotypical teenager. His frustration with adults Is characterized by his persistent use of words like goddamn, puked, hell, crap, and moron. When Holden describes Janes stepfather, he talks about how he would run most the goddamn house naked.He continues using this word when he tells the reader how Sally was conversing with a college friend, they continued their goddamn boring conversation. This relates to a twenty first century teenager in particular as they also have their own language to separate themselves from their parents such a s In the ries desperately to have almost a direct conversation with the reader, aware of his audience he attempts to impress the audience by extravaganza or repetition through a narrative tone. There is a sense that Holden wants the audience to like him as he utilizes the audience as a counsellor as outpours his ideas.This is relevant to many teenagers in the twenty first century as they try to find their place in civilization or a school society and may go to extreme lengths to find themselves and create a reputation for people to reckon them by. In The Outsider, it is almost the opposite ith Meursault. Through short clinical sentences and il ordered punctuation it highlights a detached character. Instead he lists a logical thought process and lays out what he thinks, almost unaware of a reader highlighted in the opening lines, Ill catch the two oclock bus and get there in the afternoon.Then I can keep the vigil and Ill come back tomorrow night. I asked my boss for two days fin ish This almost list style of writing enables the reader from building a connection or impression to the character as there doesnt bet to be much depth to his emotions or opinions. Meursault is unlike Holden in the sense that he does not crave attention and want people to like him his actions throughout the daybook explain how he is a stranger to society as he cant fathom why everyone around him is so interested in his being.The story examines the uncertainty of Justice the public official compiling the details of the murder case tells him repentance and turning to Christianity lead save him, exactly Meursault refuses to pretend he has found religion emotional honesty overrides self-preservation, and he accepts the idea of punishment as a consequence of his ctions as part of the status quo. The actual death of the Arab as a human being with a family is seems almost irrelevant, as Camus tells us forgetful more about the dupe beyond the fact that he is dead.Indeed, Meursault is neer even asked to confront, reflect or comment upon the victim as anything other than as a consequence of his actions and the cause of his current predicament. The humanity of the victim and inhumanity of murdering another human being is seemingly beside the point. The book holds huge relevance to the twentieth century reader as an interesting stem in The Stranger is that of watching or observation. Camus is writing a book about our endless search for meaning that we are all flavor for a purpose in our lives.The characters of The Stranger all watch distributively other and the world around them. Meursault watches the world go by from his balcony. He later passively watches his own trial the world around him is a fascination to Meursault. He keenly observes the sun, the heat, the physical geography of his surroundings. The eyes of the panel and witnesses at his trial, finally the idea of the watching crowd, representing the eyes of ociety, as he is an outsider of the world he su rrounds himself in.To conclude, both The Stranger and The Catcher in the Rye are both relevant to different people at bottom the twenty first century society for many different reasons, but both novels were written with the same topic of how one fits into society. Due to both characters in the novels being from different age groups within society it allows them to run important to people within those same age groups today as many face the same dilemma of finding themselves an outsider within their society.

Challenges of Studying Written and Oral Sources in Africa

champion of the biggest issues facing Afri give the axe historiographers is the fact that the study of actual African History is relatively new. A large majority of the generators avail fitted argon write from the point of view of Europeans, with an Intended audience of Europeans. L In this egocentric method of reporting narrative, Africans were viewed more than as objects a multitude with a past tho no history. 2 The pen diachronic sources bequeathd by imperialists robbed Africans of their voice.The principal ch anyenge facing African historians Is to find a way to Inject the African voice Into the memoir, and thus roved a more accurate representation of the classical history. This task presents more profound questions. What qualities take up soulfulness an African? Is it sufficient to be a b need mortal living on the continent? Are there levels of ethnicity? Are the descendants of Africans brought to different p machinations of the world In the slave trade Afric ans? Ultimately, who decides who Is African? Equally problematic is the Issue regarding what represents a credible source, every written or vocal exam.Each presents unique challenges that moldiness be addressed in collection to qualify the value of the Information they portend to grant. While the more traditionalistic African diachronic sources are Invariably pr oneness to the problem of European bias, cave paintings offer a source that was born out of a desire of an African ( non a European) to document their experiences. For example, the rock art of lamella Kefir in what is present-day Egypt represents the great unwashed allegedly engaging in the cunning of swimming. 3 This offers historians perhaps the oldest example of source material regarding African history. UT what does this Written source rattling tell African historians? Most importantly, it definitively originates that someone was there, and through scientific dating cuisines, It indicates approximately when th ey were there. This is real, hard usher, which underpins all historical research. 4 This Is not to Infer that there are not problems with the employ of the paintings as a source of usable evidence. The older a source is, it is more likely to be inaccurate. 5 Were the people in the paintings actually swimming, as scientists view?Does that mean that the desert where the cave paintings were found was at one time a land that needed lakes or rivers? Or did the cave painters devise their art from the second-hand memories of others who had traveled to faraway lands? What was the reason they chose to document their experience? Was it graffiti? Was it through for religious reasons? Was it a territorial marking? Archaeological sites are less(prenominal) prevalent in Africa than other parts of the world, which Is problematic In having the office to match this particular site to others.Further, the available archives needed to equation these archaeological finds are fewer in number in A frican regions, and sometimes less accessible delinquent to political reasons. The Information In the African archives that do exist Is often more knotty to translate than traditional archival Information In that most African engages are unwritten, and not written, and nearly impossible to document without the benefit of ad-lib history. 6 How can African historians mitigate these challenges and OFF source?One suggestion is to briskly search for other existing examples of cave paintings and to compare them based on materials, method, content, location, etc. When such comparable examples do not exist, scientists could initiate more archaeological digs, extend communication among scientists to broaden the evidence base, and exert political pressure upon leaders to focus on scientific endeavors, as substantially as the preservation of the archives. Like historians in other parts of the world, African historians face the challenge of deteriorating archives because of damage caused by the elements, water damage, and insects. Traditional written sources such as government documents, appraise records, and newspapers may also be lost due to archival neglect. Historians must conduct several criteria of source criticism to determine each written sources historical value. 8 Regardless of the name on the document, who was the actual author? What was the real purpose of the document? Who was the intended audience? Did the author bring personal motives in reporting it in the manner in which he did? For example, most government documents from Colonial Africa were written by Europeans, with an intended European audience.There is no African voice in this history. Africans were treated like objects,9 and colonial imperialistic authors of written sources believed that they actually were generating history for the branch time?that Africa (and Africans) had no history before their arrival. 10 Another limitation of written documents is that they are created from the po int of view of an observer, and thus produce an opinion that is completely military issueive, and thereby, by definition, are open to other opinions and observations. To address the limitations of written documents, historians often plan of attack to incorporate oral sources in conjunction with written sources in tack together to strengthen historical evidence. Anxiety about flawed written sources dis attri unlesse scholars away from libraries and into t stimulates and villages for historical narrative. 12 The incorporation of oral history into the narrative makes it more evidential and gives the written documents a more verifiable African voice. Relying on written documents from the Colonial period without the incorporation of oral sources, in many cases, produces an inaccurate version of African history.Typically, in the African history provided by Colonial Europeans their culture, norms, and ideology were largely ignored. One of the key methods to avoid (the adventure of den ying Africans a voice in their let history) is to include a peoples own oral traditions and life histories in ethnographically and archaeological break away. 13 Because most African languages in Colonial Africa were oral and not written,14 it is imperative to consider oral sources to bolster the evidence provided by written sources. Oral sources can provide a wealth of historical evidence.For example, Historical linguists use oral sources to accurately track the movement of people across the continent. 15 This evidence of man migration can help explain cultural change, which is important when considering that a lack of concentration of people in a particular area makes a study of their culture less possible. Oral histories offer first-hand accounts of events. These oral histories make grow into oral traditions16 stories passed down from contemporaries to generation, offering us a glimpse of pre-colonial Africa not found in the Euro-centric written documents of imperialists.Oral sources obviously can complement the written, a realization that was for too long lost on most professional order to strengthen written sources to form viscous historical evidence is Jan Vinson, who established that the stories handed down from one generation to another Were as stable and reliable accounts of their past as were the written chronicles and personal narratives (and) that in fact they were of the like genre. 18 In Bananas own words by creating a lifelike setting, (oral tradition) gives evidence about how situations as they were observed, as well as about beliefs uncovering situations. 19 Thus, oral sources, through both shared oral history and oral traditions, have with written sources, form a more credible account of historical occurrences than written sources alone provide. Oral sources, though, are not without their limitations. (H)Astoria can place trust in oral sources yet to the extent that they can be verified by means of external evidence of another kind, such as archaeological, linguistic, or cultural. 20 Oral sources are subject to misinterpretation because of selective or collective memory, rumor, myth, or hearsay. That being said, oral sources subject to these limitations still offer substance, because historians can still study why the subjects believe it happened that way. 22 African historians can mitigate the limitations of oral sources by intrusive for randomness that is valuable, if not as historical evidence, but as schooling that is not readily apparent through the written archive. While attempting to draw evidence from a source on one topic, a historian may gain knowledge of another unintended topic.Ultimately, it is the duty of the historian to subject all written accounts to radical internal and external psychoanalysis to determine authenticity and credibility. If the accounts are thoroughly examined, and the texts can be compared to one another with the tuition contained in oral and other sources, they will re st to yield valuable information on the history of Africa. 23 These things considered if an historian wanted to get an approximation of how many Africans were enslaved, maimed or killed in the occupation of King Leopold in the congo, where would they start? What sources would they utilize, and what would they expect to find?What there information strength they accidentally stumble upon? I propose that a ripe place to start would be to examine any existing hospital documents from 1885-1908, to determine if there is a written record of the number of people treated for loss of limbs. Local censuses (if available), police records, military ledgers, property records, stopping point certificates capacity also prove as fruitful written resources. Additionally, missional records in the region skilly prove to be valuable, especially considering that they would plausibly not require translation, lessening the possibility that any information would be mistranslated.Another possible va luable written source might be records in the Belgian archive, or that of the present-day Democratic Republic of Congo. The historian might hope to find information or documents concerning the Congo Reform Association, which might shed some light on the information she seeks. Additionally, research on the Congo Free State propaganda war and the International Association of the Congo might provide valuable useful written sources of evidence of injuries and deaths to those enslaved at that time.One might also be able to glean useful information from historical-based literature, such as Joseph Concords Heart of Darkness, Sir Arthur Cowan Doles The Crime of the Congo, and Bertrand Russell Freedom and Organization. Research on the parties evidence of the atrocities in the region, including Edmund Dine Muriel, Roger Casement and the aforementioned Bertrand Russell. Local museums might contain artwork from the region during Loopholes occupation that captures the outrage, despair and helple ssness of the affected.By speaking to locals, she might learn, through oral tradition, the stories passed down from generation to generation about the occupation. In the unlikely, yet still possible event, that any 106-year-old residents still survive, they would be able to provide first-hand oral history. Other than gaining information regarding the number of enslaved, killed and maimed, she would, in all probability, gain an understanding of the long-term effects of the occupation of Leopold upon the citizens, as well as information of how Loopholes occupation came to an end due to intense internationalistic criticism.Possible obstacles that she might experience In retreat, Leopold may have destroyed written evidence of the atrocities, as well as local artwork or libraries. His regime may have been so strict that any expression, either written or oral, was prohibited and subject to the same penalties as those who refused to work in the mines, or underperformed in their duties, di minishing oral sources. Lets consider that the same historian endeavored to learn the approximate number of the descendants of diasporas Africans who returned to partake in the so-called redeeming of Africa. Where might she begin, and what would she expect to find? What limitations might she bump? What other information might she learn along the way? A good starting mint would be to visit the archives in Liberia and Sierra Leone countries set up as places of African repatriation for freed slaves. There, she could view the juristic records regarding who came back and when they returned, who their family members were, where they lived, as well as their professions. Available Census documents would prove to be invaluable in that regard.Ships manifests would reflect the number of passengers returning to these countries, as well as the number of family members that accompanied them. She could research the founders of both countries, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the first president of Liberi a, and Christopher Koru Cole and Osaka Stevens, early leaders of Sierra Leone, to find documents pertaining to the be of returning Africans. She could study historical literature about repatriation, such as Back to Africa the Colonization Movement in Early Africa by timothy Crummier, as well as Black Migration in America a Social Demographic History by Daniel M.Johnson and Rexes R. Campbell. She could also read the whole kit of the men who themselves returned, such as George Washington Williams, Samuel Jay Crotchet, and Henry McNealy Turner. 4 approximately limitations she might experience in her research inconclusive data due to the relative impossibility of proving that they (or their descendants) were indeed originally removed from the continent. Incomplete or inaccurate documentation might also prove to be a stumbling block in attaining this information.Additional research on topics such as the American Colonization Society, and the histories of both Liberia and Sierra Leone would not only provide mathematical data, but also undoubtedly uncover unintended useful information about the achievements and political and religious aims of those who returned, as well as how hey were received. Did they consider themselves more civilized than the native Africans whose descendants had not been removed from the continent?What other the reasons why some Africans did not return, even though they had the opportunity. finished personal interviews of present-day citizens who are descendants of returning freed slaves she could learn of the oral traditions they had developed. She might also learn of the artwork prevalent in these regions, as well as the folklore and literature that the return to Africa produced, and how it differed from that of indigenous Africans. As a recognized academic endeavor, (African history) has emerged only in the last four or five decades. 25 Until recently, African history was written by and for Europeans, and as such, didnt provide a realis tic depiction of the people, the culture, and the overall actual history of the continent, but served more as a record of White encroachment, and functioned as a tool of propaganda to legitimate the civilizing mission of Europeans. By altering traditional methodology and utilizing both written and oral sources, a more accurate take care of African history ND its people can be observed and studied.Beyond the fade of imperialistic African history, there is a real history of the African continent that invites further study, and such an endeavor is necessary in restoring the African voice. If we fail to do so, (w)e run the risk of not only denying people a voice in the reconstruction of their own history, but offending and demeaning indigenous cultures when we use them as a baby-sit for the past without recognizing not only their changing past but their active involvement in changing and/or maintaining their identities and history in the present. 26

Data-collection in Qualitative Research Essay

This Chapter is ab tabu rules and techniques in data-collection during a soft look into. We mentioned earlier that qualitative research is eclectic. That is, the choice of techniques is myrmecophilous on the needs of the research. Although this should be true for al to the highest degree all affectionate research, it is particularly so with qualitative research in that the appropriate method or techniques is often identified and adopted during the research. Qualitative research is in like manner multi-modal. The detective may adopt a variety of research techniques, or a combination of such, as long as they argon reassert by the needs. The discussion below is therefore not to identify a set of techniques unique to qualitative research, precisely quite a, to precede the methods and techniques close ordinarily employ in qualitative research, and the issues related to such use.We shall introduce the methods and techniques in three broad categories contemplations, inter views and view of documents. These argon in like manner the basic methods used in cultural anthropology (Bernard, 198862). Indeed, the discussions about qualitative research in teaching can be viewed as a particular upshot in cultural anthropology. ruminationsObservation usually means the tecs moment to get word out what people do (Bernard, 198862). It is incompatible from other methods in that data occur not necessarily in response to the investigators stimulus.Observation may be obtrusive or unobtrusive. A researcher may simply sit in the corner of a give lessons playground and observe how students be pee during breaks. He may to a fault stand by the school gate and observe how students behave at the school gate. much(prenominal) cases of observation may be seen as unobtrusive. In other cases, the researchers may not apply any stimuli, but their posture per se may have some influence on the scene. The around common ex adenosine monophosphatele in this category is scho olroom observation. Although the researcher may just sit quietly at the corner of a classroom, the aim of the researcher may change the classroom climate. It is, nonetheless, put away observation.Observation is a basic technique used in almost all qualitative research. Even if other methods or techniques are used, the researcher remains the most essential sensor or instrument and hence observation evermore counts (McCracken, 198818-20). For warning, when interviewing is used, a qualitative researcher alike takes into account the tonic or facial expressions of the viewer, because they help interpret the verbal responses. Such expressions are scarcely sentienced by observation.If the interview is done in the field, thence the environs of the interview site also will meaningful data for the research. The surroundings can only be depicted through observation. Hence observation is indispensable in almost all occasions of qualitative research. However, the enclosure observ ation may some fourth sableensions go beyond what is seen. It also pertains to what is heard, and as yet sometimes what is smelled. Case 4.1 provides one of such examples.Case 4.1 Classroom Observation SchemeIn the IIEP project on basic upbringing, Leung designed for the Chinese research a scheme for classroom observation. Classroom was taken as one of the environmental factors affecting students learning. The scheme was designed after Leung stayed in local schools for two days. The scheme did not confine itself to the performance of the teacher, although that was a part. The figure on the next page shows one of the six sections of the scheme.unlike writers have diverse ways of classifying observations. Without running into juggling of definitions, we shall briefly introduce observations as histrion observations and non-participant observations. More detailed classification of observations can be found in Bernard (1988), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1990).Participant ObservationParticipant observation is mayhap the most typical of qualitative research. Some authors even use participant observation as a synonym for ethnographical research. Different writers may have slightly different definitions of participant observation. The followers description by Fetterman is perhaps the most agreeable to most researchers.Participant observation is submersion in a culture. Ideally, the ethnographer lives and works in the companionship for six months to a socio-economic class or more, learning the language and seeing patterns of behaviour e rattlingplace time. Long-term residence helps the researcher internalize the basic beliefs, fears, hopes and expectations of the people below field of view. (198945)Immersion of the participant can either be straight or noncontinuous. The three classical cases we quoted in Chapter 1 all include familiarity in the continuous mode. Lis film of classroom sociology (Cases 3.8 and 3.9) refer one years continuous residence. In the second and three year she went to the school three days a week. She combined continuous with noncontinuous participant observations. Fetterman used noncontinuous participation when he was doing qualitative evaluation of procreational programmes.Case 4.2 Noncontinuous VisitsIn two ethnographic studies, of dropouts and of gifted children, Fetterman visited the programmes for only a few weeks every couple of months all over a three-year period. The visits were intense. They included classroom observation, informal interviews, occasional(prenominal) substitute teaching,interaction with community members, and the use of several(a) other research techniques, including long-distance phone-calls, dinner with students families, and time spent hanging out in the hallways and parking lot with students sculpture classes. (Fetterman, 198946-7) II. Environment of the classroom1. The classroom is on the _____ floor of the school building.2. The classroom is near( ) resid ential area ( ) factories( ) road(s) ( ) field( ) marketplace( ) others _______________________________________3. The number of windows which provide lighting and ventilation to the classroom ( ) satisfies the involve standard( ) is below the required standard4. The main artificial lighting facility in the classroom is ( ) florescent tubes total no.__________________( ) light bulbs total no.__________________5. Condition of lighting during the lesson ( ) bright ( ) dim ( ) dark6. Ventilation in the classroom( ) well ventilated ( ) moss-grown ( ) suffocating7. Quality of air in the classroom( ) refreshing ( ) a bit smelly ( ) stingy8. Environments for listening( ) very quiet ( ) occasional noise ( ) noisy9. Classrooms floor structure( ) cover ( ) log ( ) mud ( ) carpet10. Classrooms floor civilise( ) clean ( ) some litter ( ) full of rubbish11. Classrooms wall conditions( ) smooth & clean ( ) some stains ( ) dirty & damaged12. Classrooms area _____________m2 area/person ___ __ m2.13. spot use in classroom( ) looks spatial ( ) fairly crowded ( ) very crowded14. Furniture and other article arrangements in the classroom ( ) natty and tidy ( ) messy1Figure 1 Classroom Observation Scheme (Designed by Leung Yat-ming) Whytes cognize in the Italian slum (Case 2) is perhaps the hot to ideal in participant observation. He stayed in the community for two years. He experienced the life of a member of the Italian slum. In Whytes case, native membership allows the researcher the highest level of participant observation. most(prenominal) researchers are denied such an opportunity, often because of constraints in time and resources, as we have discussed at length in Chapter 3. Under all sorts of constraints, at top hat the researcher lives as much as mathematical with and in the alike(p) manner as the individuals under investigation (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984 109). In these circumstances, the researchers may not claim that they was doing ethnography, but it is legitimate to apply ethnographic approach and techniques to the study (Fetterman, 198947). Participant observation in its broad esthesis therefore tolerates different lengths of time and different degrees of depth. thither is a full range of possible modes of participant observation, what Wolcott calls ethnographer sans1 ethnography (Wolcott, 1984 177).The most frequent case in education is that a researcher may stay in a school and become a teacher in that school. The researcher identity may or may not be disguised. The researcher may then, as a participant, observe teachers behaviours in teaching, in meetings, in conversations, and so forth.Sometimes, the researcher is readily a member of the community (say, a school) and may still carry out research as a participant observer. However, in this case, the researcher should be aware of his/her knowledge of the community and should be unadventurous that such knowledge would not lead to preoccupations about the school under research. In cases where the researchers have successfully gained membership (as Whyte did in the Italian slum), the property amidst a native member and the researcher-as-participant begins to blur. This insider-outsider dialectics will be advertize discussed later.Nonparticipant ObservationStrictly speaking, nonparticipant observation involves merely watching what is happening and record events on the spot. In the qualitative orientation, because of the non-intervention principle, strict nonparticipant observation should involve no interaction between the observer and the observed. Goetz and LeCompte assert that in the strict sense nonparticipant observation exists only where interactions are viewed through hidden photographic camera and vertical flute or through one-way mirror (1984 143).Dabbs (198241), for example, used hidden camera in Atlanta at a plaza in gallium State University, and studied an informal group that a great deal gathered during the break of the day break. There are examples of using hidden impression-cameras in school toilets to study drug problem among students, or to use unnoticed audio recording device to study student interactions. The use of audio or video recording device often invites concern in ethnical considerations. Such problems are similar to those arising in using one-way mirrors in interviews or psychological experiments. Such cases are rare in policy-related research.Another case of nonparticipant observation with ethical problem is disguised observation, or covert observation. A typical example is Humphreys (1975) study on homosexual activities. He did not accede in such activities, but offered to act as watch queen, warning his informants when someone approached the toilet. Another famous example is Van Maanens covert study of police. He became practically a police recruit. Over more than a decade, he slipped in and out of the police in various research roles (Van Maanen, 1982). Covert observations are once agai n rare in research which is related to educational decision-making.Hidden camera or recorder and covert observation occur only exceptionally.  close author would accept the watching of audience behaviour during a basketball game (Fetterman, 198947) or the watching of pedestrian behaviour over a street as acceptable examples of nonparticipant observations. Interaction between the researcher and the mixer community under study is often unavoidable. We have again discussed this at length in Chapter 3 under the notion of researcher intervention. If we recognize the problem of intervention as a matter of degrees, then the sign between participant observation and nonparticipant observation begins to blur. The general principle crossways the board is that the researchers should minimize their interactions with the informants and focus attention unobtrusively on the burgeon forth of events (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984143).Wolcotts study of school principal (Case 3) was perhaps the mo st intensive type of nonparticipant observation that one could find in the realm of education. (He also used other supplementary methods as mentioned in Case 3). He did live with the school for two years, but he did not participate as a school principal which was his subject of study. He see his role as one of participant-as-observer (Wolcott, 19847). So was Lis study (Case 3.8) of classroom sociology in her first year.She did stay with the school as a teacher but she never became a student which was her subject of study. The following two years of her study, however, was not nonparticipant observation because she applied experimental measures. During the UNICEF research in Liaoning, the basic method I used was interviewing and not nonparticipant observation, but I did have, at times, nonparticipant observation when debates occurred between the local planners and the provincial planners (Case 3.7), or when planners chat among themselves about their past experience in the field.The most frequently employed nonparticipant observation which is relevant to educational decision-making is perhaps observation at meetings. Typically, the researcher attends a meeting as an observer. The researcher tries to be as unobtrusive as possible and records everything that happens during the meeting. When Wolcott did his study on the school principal, he was present at all meetings unless he was told otherwise (Wolcott, 19844). The following was my experience of a non-participant observation in China.Case 4.3 A Validation SeminarI realized during the UNICEF research in Liaoning (Case 4) that one essential step in the planning for basic education in China was validation. When drafting of an education plan was complete, the draft plan had to undergo scrutiny in what is cognize as a validation seminar. In essence, all those related to the plan, including leaders at all levels, representatives of all relevant government departments, experts from all areas are invited to discuss. Relevant documents are sent to the participants well in advance. They are then asked to comment on the plan during the validation exercise. Only validated plans are submitted to relevant machinery for legislation. The validation seminar for Liaoning was unfortunately held before the UNICEF research. I got an opportunity, however, a year after in 1988, when the Shanghai educational plan was to undergo validation.The array of the meeting agreed to send me an invitation. I attended the meeting in the name of an external expert, although I made clear to the drove that my major task was not to contribute. They agreed. During the meeting, I was able to observe the roles of the various actors during the meeting. I was also able to talk to individual participants during tea breaks and meals to deduct their background and their general views about educational planning. I was able to do a number of things over the two-day meeting (a) to classify the over 40 participants into technocrats, b ureaucrats, policy-makers and academics (b) to understand the different extents in which the participants contributed to the modification of the plan (c) the disparity in capacity among participants in terms of information and expertise (d) the inter-relations between the different categories of actors and (e) the function of the validation exercise. In the end, I concluded that validation was a way of legitimation, which employed both technical (expert judgement) and political (participation) means to accession the acceptability of the plan before it went for legal endorsement. The political aspect came to me as a surprise. It indicated a change in the notion of rationality among Chinese planners and policy-makers.InterviewingInterviewing is widely used in qualitative research. Compared with observation, it is more economical in time, but may achieve less in understanding the culture. The deliverance in time, however, makes ethnographic interviewing almost the most widely used te chnique in policy-related research.Interviewing is trying to understand what people think through their speech. There are different types of interviews, often classified by the degrees of control over the interview. Along this line, we shall briefly introduce three types of interviewing informal interviewing, unstructured interviewing, semi-structured interviewing, and officially structured interviewing. We shall also briefly introduce key-informant interviewing and focus groups which are peculiar(prenominal) types of ethnographic interviewing.Qualitative research of course has no monopoly over interviewing. Interviewing is also frequently used in research of other traditions. The difference between ethnographic interviewing and interviewing in other traditions lies mainly in two areas the interviewer-interviewee relationship and the aims of interviews. Ethnographic interviewees, or informants, are teachers rather than subjects to the researcher, they are leaders rather than follo wers in the interview. The major aim of the interview should not be seeking responses to specific questions, but initiating the informant to unfold data.Readers may find more detailed discussions about ethnographic interviewing in Spradley (1979) who provides perhaps the most insightful account of the subject. In-depth discussions about ethnographic interviewing can also be found in Bernard (1988), Patton (1990), Fetterman (1989) and Powney and Watts (1987).Informal InterviewingInformal interviewing entails no control. It is usually conversations that the researcher recall after staying in the field. It is different from observation in that it is interactive. That is, the informant speaks to the researcher. By its own nature, informal interviewing is the most ethnographic in the sense that it is not responding to any formal question. It is part of the self-unfolding process.